Checking for the option value jetpack_active_modules.

Searching for photon in wp_options is how I found the option_name.
The following prints the option as an admin notice:
add_action( 'admin_notices', 'wpse_75103_active_jetpack_modules' );
function wpse_75103_active_jetpack_modules()
{
if( !current_user_can( 'delete_users' ) )
return;
$jetp = get_option( 'jetpack_active_modules' );
$photon_active = ( in_array( 'photon', $jetp ) ) ? 'is' : 'is not';
echo '<h1>Photon ' . $photon_active . ' active</h1>';
echo '<h2>All JetPack Options</h2>';
echo '<pre>' . print_r( $jetp, true ) . '</pre>';
}
The following is the result with all modules activate.
The key numbers are in the order by which the modules were activated and should not be used as reference. And I don't know what logic is behind them.
( in a local host installation )
Array
(
[0] => vaultpress
[1] => photon
[3] => notes
[5] => publicize
[7] => stats
[9] => comments
[11] => subscriptions
[13] => post-by-email
[15] => carousel
[17] => sharedaddy
[19] => after-the-deadline
[21] => infinite-scroll
[23] => enhanced-distribution
[25] => json-api
[27] => mobile-push
[29] => widgets
[31] => latex
[33] => gravatar-hovercards
[35] => contact-form
[37] => minileven
[39] => custom-css
[41] => shortcodes
[43] => shortlinks
)